Smart Leadership for Intelligent Organizations

Bibliography

Agocs, Carol. “Institutionalized Resistance to Organizational Change: Denial, Inaction, and Repression.” Journal of Business Ethics. June 1997. Vol. 16. No. 9. Agocs addresses the issue of change from the perspective of change agents within organizations attempting to change the organization itself. She identifies three ways that institutions resist: denial, inaction and repression.

Bass, Bernard M. Bass & Stogdill’s Handbook of Leadership: Theory, Research and Managerial Applications. 3e. New York: The Free Press. 1990. This work presents various theories and concepts of leadership, personal attributes of leaders, discusses power and legitimacy of leaders, leadership and management, and begins to explore leadership and diverse groups.

Bennis, Warren G., Kenneth D. Benne, and Robert Chin. The Planning of Change. New York: Holte, Rinehart and Winston. 1984. This work is a series of articles addressing the overall issue of planning for change in organizations. It provides an historical perspective, differences in theories, diagnostics, how to go about doing it, and understanding the role of values and goals in the context of achieving change.

Blake, Robert R., and Jane S. Mouton. The New Managerial Grid: Strategic New Insights into a Proven System for Increasing Organization Productivity and Individual Effectiveness. Houston: Gulf Publishing Co. 1978. Provides a grid tool for managers to assess their own styles of management. Focuses on management behaviors as a way to motivate employees and generate increased productivity in organizations.

Block, Peter. Stewardship: Choosing Service over Self-Interest. San Francisco: Berrett- Koehler Publishers. 1993. This work focuses on the ideas of choosing partnership over patriarchy as a model of working with people. Block argues that patriarchy is a belief system, and that from that belief system the need for predictability and control emerge. Block suggests that people choose adventure over safety – risk taking. Partnership does not allow for dependency and entitlement, because it shifts ownership and responsibility to partners.

Buzon, Tony, and Barry Buzon. The Mind Map Book. New York: Plume Books. 1993. This work describes systems of brain function, and how a specific technique of study, brainstorming, and organizing called mind mapping can be a more effective way of both understanding the world around, and for planning for the future. Their view is that mind mapping is a creative tool that provides a way of thinking and engaging in creative problem-solving that is more akin to the way the brain works than linear planning and organizing.

Chin, Robert and Kenneth D. Benne. “General Strategies for Effecting Change in Human Systems.” In Warren Bennis, Robert Chin, and Kenneth D. Benne (eds.) The Planning of Change. New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston. 1984. This chapter provides an overview of three general sets of change theories specific to planning processes. It describes empirical-rational strategies, normative-re-educative strategies, and power coercive strategies.

Clark, Burton R. “The Making of an Organizational Saga.” In Shafrittz, Jay M., and J. Steven Ott. Classics of Organization Theory. 3e. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. 1992. Cooperrider, David L., Peter F. Sorenson, Jr., Therese F. Yager, and Diana Whitney. (eds.) Appreciative Inquiry: An emerging direction for organization development.

Champagne, Ill.: Stipes Publishing. 2001. This work is a collection of articles focusing on appreciative inquiry, what it is, case studies involving its use in specific settings, and lastly the future of appreciative inquiry, both in the theoretical and practical world of organizational development, as well as an examination of the potential for cross-cultural, or global application.

Covey, Stephen R. Principle Centered Leadership. New York: Simon & Schuster. 1990. Stephen Covey, author of Seven Habits of Highly Effective People examines the core of leadership by examining the idea of principles. He argues that principles are constant concepts that emerge out of natural laws or governing principles.

Principles are the “why to do something.” Since principles are constant, this creates the ability to engage in “leadership by compass.”

Deming, W. Edwards. The New Economics: For Industry, Government, Education. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. 1994. Deming argues that people are living under a tyranny of the prevailing style of management, and that this is leading the U.S. into decline. Deming says in this work that competition is at the root of the demise of the American economy and society. His main point is that the failure to see isolated groups and activities in society as actually parts of a larger system breeds solutions to unconnected problems.

Detert, James R., Roger G. Schoeder, and John J. Mauriel. “A Framework for Linking Culture and Improvement Initiatives in Organizations.” Academy of Management. The Academy of Management Review. Briarcliff Manor: October, 2000. Vol. 25, Issue 4. The authors of this study performed an exhaustive literature review to develop a synthesis of what they call the general dimensions of organizational culture used in research. They determined that there are eight general dimensions that researchers use to explain culture. They relate these dimensions to total quality management.

Doyle, M. E. and Smith, M. K. (2001) ‘Classical leadership’, The Encyclopedia of Informal Education, http://www.infed.org/leadership/traditional_leadership.htm. Doyle and Smith describe four main generations of leadership theory over the past eighty years. They call these the classical theories of leadership. These theories are: 1) trait theories, 2) behavior theories, 3) contingency theories, and 4) transformational theories.

Eadie, Douglas C. Changing by Design: A Practical Approach to Leading Innovation in Nonprofit Organizations. San Francisco: Jossy Bass. 1997. Eadie’s work is an examination of the nature of change and the deficiencies in current approaches. The work looks at the role of executives in change, the role of creativity in change, and the need for planning to achieve organizational change in nonprofits. Finally it looks at the implementation of change.

Enlightened Naval Leadership Initiative web site. http://www.cee.nps.navy.mil/NewSite/leadership_summit/comments.htm. Highlights comments from naval personnel after participating in appreciative inquiry leadership summit. 2002.

Fiedler, Fred E. A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1967. Fiedler’s work in this discussion sets the stage for Hersey and Blanchard’s “situational leadership.” Fiedler is the first to introduce the “contingency theory” of leadership, which states that a groups performance will be contingent upon the proper match of leader style with the group situation.

Fleenor, John W. and Carl Bryant. “Leadership Effectiveness and Organizational Culture: An Exploratory Study.” Lecture: Toronto, Canada. April 2002. Presented at the meeting of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology. This survey study evaluated 360 degree leadership ratings and ratings of organizational culture to determine the effect of leadership on organizational culture. The authors found amongst other findings that 1) there was a connection between personal development efforts by managers and their ability to impact the organization’s culture, 2) the relationship between individual performance and organizational culture was stronger for upper level than for lower level managers.

Gardner, John W. On Leadership. New York: The Free Press. 1990. Gardner is halfway between two worlds in this work. While he advocates for something called dispersed leadership, he does so within the structure of hierarchies. He sees the need for leadership across all sections of organizations, and up and down the linear hierarchical chains of command. He sees the tasks of leadership being: envisioning goals, affirming values, motivating, managing, achieving workable unity, explaining, serving as a symbol, representing the group and renewing.

Gladwell, Malcom. The Tipping Point: How Little Things Can Make a Big Difference. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. 2002. Gladwell describes a theory of social contagion akin to biological epidemics. When an idea take hold and enough of the “right” people adopt an idea it will spread thoroughly and rapidly.

Goelman, Daniel. Working With Emotional Intelligence. New York: Bantam Books, 1998. Goelman describes a set of twelve competencies and thirteen relationship skills that people should have to excel at their jobs. This work is an application of the earlier work done in his book Emotional Intelligence and provides a way that people in business and nonprofits can take the ideas into the workplace.

Greenleaf, Robert K. Servant Leadership: A Journey Into The Nature of Legitimate Power and Greatness. New York: Paulist Press. 1977.Greenleaf is the originator of the concept of “servant leadership” in his 1969 essay “Servant Leadership,” which is included in this book. Greenleaf’s has a twofold premise: 1) effective leaders must operate from a position of servitude, and 2) followers are obligated to follow servant-leaders. His ideas were inspired by Herman Hesse’s “Journey to the East.” According to Greenleaf, “a true natural servant automatically responds to any problem by listening, which implies a desire to understand.

Paul Hersey, Kenneth H. Blanchard, and Dewey E. Johnson. Management of Organizational Behavior. (eighth edition). New Jersey: Prentice Hall. 2001. This work analyzes ideas of motivation and behavior and leadership theories. Based upon this study a theory of situational leadership is developed, which describes a way of applying the best leadership strategies to followers’ states of readiness.

Following the development of this theory, several chapters provide discussions of how situational leadership can be applied in relationships, teams, and the implementation of change Hage, Jerald. Theories of Organization: Form, Process and Transformation. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 1980. Hage says that there are four paradigms that explain organizations. Structural-functionalism, power-value, cybernetic-adaptive, and conflict-critical. Power, change, the human factor, and resources and the environment are all subjects against which the paradigms are synthesized.

Helgesen, Sally. The Web of Inclusion: A New Architecture of Building Great Organizations. New York: Currency Doubleday. 1995. The Web of Inclusion is a description of a way of organizational behavior and thinking that is inclusive to the extent that all levels of organization participate in setting the direction and tone.

Helgesen posits that people cannot be creative in their work lives if they do not participate in the decisions that affect them. The web itself is a different way of looking at organizational structure – not hierarchical, but interrelated.

Janis, Irving L. “Groupthink: The Desparate Drive for Consensus at Any Cost.” In Shafrittz, Jay M., and J. Steven Ott. Classics of Organization Theory. 3e.

Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. 1992. First published in Psychology Today Magazine, 1971. Groups can and will commit to poor strategies that no individual would think rational because of a phenomenon related to social conformity, shared illusions, and group norms. These often happen at the expense of critical thinking. This takes the form of members of a group adopting a soft line of criticism of leadership, seeking concurrence on important issues, and adopting strategies that avoid conflict. Groupthink cohesiveness increases with group cohesiveness.

Katz, Daniel and Robert L. Kahn. “Organizations and the Systems Concept.” In Shafrittz, Jay M., and J. Steven Ott. Classics of Organization Theory. 3e. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. 1992. First published in The Social Psychology of Organizations. Wiley and Sons. 1966. The authors argue that it is a fallacy to equate the purposes and goals of an organization with the goals of individual members. They advocate examining organizations in the context of systems. They say that systems theory is concerned with relationships, structure and interdependence. They also discuss open versus closed systems.

Kraus, William A. Collaboration in Organizations: Alternatives to Hierarchy. New York: Human Sciences Press. 1980. This work advocates for collaborative organizations, over hierarchy. Discusses competition and hierarchy as counterfeit behavior because it does not maximize productivity, nor does it develop individual potential. Kraus says that hierarchy is primarily responsible for competition.

Larson, Laurie. “A New Attitude: Changing Organizational Culture.” Trustee. Chicago: Apr. 2002. Vol. 55, Iss. 4. This article focuses on healthcare organizations. Larson defines culture as the personality of an organization. She argues that healthcare values need to be put back in place in order for the healthcare organizations to be more successful. She suggests a quick method of identifying an organizations values is to ask what it measures and what it celebrates.

MacKenzie, Gordon. Orbiting the Giant Hairball. New York: Viking-Penguin. 1998.

MacKenzie writes on his observations about fostering creative genius in organizations from his perspective of having worked for Hallmark for 30 years. The hairball is representation of corporate culture, while the goal is to orbit the hairball – that is, not let the corporate culture stifle creativity. The other goal is for individuals and departments to not get so far outside of the hairball that they cease to be relevant.

Maslow, Abraham H. Toward a Psychology of Being. 3e. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 1999. This third edition, posthumously revised is the wide-spread work that re-articulates and further defines Maslow’s hierarchy of basic needs. Much of the work is focused on the psychology of people’s progression toward a state of selfactualization. Maslow’s work sets the stage for the humanistic psychology movement. The underpinning of self-actualization is that people may be well adjusted to their current situation, but they may not be well adjusted in terms of their potential. See also: Maslow, Abraham H. Motivation and Personality. (3e.) New York: Longman. 1954.

Murzi, Maro, The Internet Encyclopeadia of Philosophy. http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/l/logpos.htm#The%20Main%20Philosophical%20Tenets%20of%20Logical%20Positivism. 2001. An overview of the concept of logical positivism. Defines it as an idea originating in the 1920s as a result of people within the Vienna School, and is a scientific method/logical approach to seeking truth and defining reality. It is an attempt to move beyond metaphysics.

Owen, Harrison. Open Space Technology: A User’s Guide. San Francisco, CA.: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc. 1997. Open Space Technology is a collaborative group structure that was originated by Harrison Own. It involves bringing a broad array of stakeholders in an issue together to discuss ideas and bring out possible solutions. Information is collected at these meetings and entered into computers in real-time to derive further connections to people and groups sharing similar interests. Key ideas are the principle of two feet (people are encouraged to leave if they are not contributing), and those who are there are meant to be there.

Salamon, Lester M. America’s Nonprofit Sector: A Primer. New York: The Foundation Center. 1999. An overview of the nonprofit sector in the United States, including concepts relating to its origins, the scope and structure of the sector, and discussions of the key sub-sectors.

Salamon, Lester M. (ed.) The State of Nonprofit America. Washington, DC.: Brookings Institution Press, 2002. This volume is a collection of articles on the subsectors by prominent nonprofit academicians. The work provides an overview of the sector, echoing Salamon’s America’s Nonprofit Sector, but indicating that the sector demonstrates flexibility to changing conditions. Major challenges are identified and the beginnings of recommendations are formulated.

Schein, Edgar H. Organizational Culture and Leadership. (2e.) San Francisco: Jossy- Bass. 1992. This work defines culture, what it does and examines the dimensions of culture in organizations. Schein examines the role of leadership in building culture while also looking at how culture and leadership evolve. He finishes by engaging in an in depth discussion of learning cultures and leaders. A central idea in this work is that leaders establish the initial culture of an organization, but once this happens, the culture itself takes over in determining who the leaders are in the future. Dysfunctional culture then becomes a real problem for the organization, and is the place where leaders have to work hard once a culture is established. This is viewed by many academicians as a seminal work in the field.

Scholtes, Peter. The Leader’s Handbook: A guide to inspiring your people and managing the daily work flow. New York: McGraw Hill. 1998. This work advocates a systems perspective on organizational management. Central themes are understanding organizational systems, and using evaluation strategies to make continual improvements. Team approach is critical in this thinking.

Senge, Peter. The Fifth Discipline: The Art and Practice of the Learning Organization.

New York: Doubleday Currency, 1990. The idea of the learning organization emerges in this volume and forms the basis for a new way of organizational development. The five disciplines are: personal mastery, mental models, shared vision, team learning and systems thinking.

Senge, Peter, Art Kleiner, Charlotte Roberts, Richard B. Ross and Brian J. Smith. The Fifth Discipline Fieldbook. New York: Doubleday Currency. 1994. A practical application of the ideas articulated in The Fifth Discipline, designed for use in organizations as a way to transform them into learning organizations. Senge, Peter, Art Kleiner, Charlotte Roberts, Richard Ross, George Roth, and Bryan Smith. The Dance of Change: The Challenges to Sustaining Momentum in Learning Organizations. New York: Currency Doubleday. 1999. A guide to using the principles developed in The Fifth Discipline specifically to address the impacts, challenges and effects of change upon an organization. Senge, Peter, Nelda Cambron-McCabe, Timothy Lucas, Bryan Smith, Janis Dutton, and Art Kleiner. Schools that Learn: A Fifth Discipline Fieldbook for Educators, Parents, and Everyone Who Cares about Education. New York: Currency Doubleday. 2000. A guide to applying the principles of The Fifth Discipline to education systems and their stakeholders.

Simms, Ronald R. “Changing an Organization’s Culture Under New Leadership.” Journal of Business Ethics. May 2000. This article applied Schein’s five ways leaders influence organizational culture to the observation of Warren Buffett’s rehabilitation of Solomon Brothers following a significant scandal. They found that Schein’s model was an accurate predictor.

Sims, Ronald R. and Johannes Brinkmann. “Enron Ethics (Or: Culture Matters More than Codes.” Journal of Business Ethics. July 2003. Volume 45, Number 5. This article applied Scein’s five ways leaders influence organizational culture to the decline of Enron. The model was used in a subtractive fashion to determine if the leaders behavior, in retrospect, could be seen as supporting or refuting Schein’s model. The authors found that Schein’s model was supported.

Shafrittz, Jay M., and J. Steven Ott. Classics of Organization Theory. 3e. Belmont, CA:

Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. 1992. This is a collection of writings by key influential individuals in the formation of theories of organization. The timeline of organizational theory begins in 1491 B.C. with Moses’ authority during the exodus, and ends in 1990 A.D., with Peter Senge’s learning organization concepts. The authors present eight kinds of organizational theories, and include representative works and discussions of each theory.

Smircich, Linda M. “Organizations as Shared Meanings.” In Shafrittz, Jay M., and J. Steven Ott. Classics of Organization Theory. 3e. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. 1992. This ethnography is a study of an insurance company following the merger of three companies. In this study, she observes the organizational rituals that give rise to shared meaning within the organization. This article is a classic example of examining culture to determine how organizations behave. Smircich concludes that organizations are systems of meanings, and that the commonality that results is developed through slogans, rituals, and other shared activities. They create common grounds for action.

Snyder, Richard C. “To Improve Innovation, Manage Corporate Culture.” In Warren Bennis, Robert Chin, and Kenneth D. Benne (eds.) The Planning of Change. New York: Holt, Reinhart and Winston. 1984. This chapter defines the concept of corporate culture, including how to deal with it strategically, how to manage it, its nature, understanding its effects, and how corporate culture is a “lever” of change.

Soonnhee, Kim. “Participative Management and Job Satisfaction: Lessons for Management Leadership.” Public Administration Review. Washington: Mar/Apr 2002. Vol. 62, Iss. 2.

Watts, Duncan J., Ph.D. Six Degrees: The Science of A Connected Age. New York: W.W. Norton & Company. 2003. A discussion of the application of mathematical theory to understanding transformative moments in nature, manmade objects and systems, and in social networks. Describes a mathematical model for both understanding and predicting transformative moments. A central idea in this work is that most people are only three “degrees” or steps away from communicating with or contacting anyone that they want to. The discussion also focuses on those moments that transform a set of independent events into a larger collective event that is more than the sum of the parts. Systems thinking is a large part of this work.

Weick, Karl E. “Administering Education in Loosely Coupled Schools.” Phi Delta Kappan 63, no. 10 (June 1982): 673-676. Weick explains why schools are unlike other organizations and need to be managed differently. He proposes a new theory of organization, called 'loose coupling' that takes into account the unique characteristics of schools. Weick analyzes the role of the administrator in a loosely coupled system and considers the risks of those systems.